Two Great Renaissance Artists - 2585 Words

Two Great Renaissance Artists The Renaissance period is known as a period of the rebirth of Greek ideas. The works of this time were more individualized and the artists had more artistic freedom then were allowed in the Medieval or middle Ages. Two of the greatest individuals of the Renaissance time period were Leonardo Da Vinci and Michelangelo. Not only was Da Vinci a great artist, he was also the best in many fields other than art. â€Å"Leonardo is often viewed as the archetype of the Renaissance Man because of his expertise and interest in many different areas, including art, science, music, mechanics, the arts of war, politics, philosophy, and nearly every other subject that mattered† (Wikibooks, 2010). Michelangelo Buonarroti†¦show more content†¦While most other artists idealized everything, he wanted to paint what he actually saw. He studied people on the streets and things in nature which, to him, were the most beautiful things. Leonardo da Vinci was and is renowned primarily as a painter and the works of art that Leonardo left behind are very few. He left us numerous masterpieces that we still study and marvel at today, but he never completed a statue and has only about a dozen finished paintings. He left behind many anatomical and mechanical drawing and thousands of sketches (Plumb, 1961). One such masterpiece, the 16th century oil painting of the Mona Lisa, also referred to as ‘La Giaconda’, is considered by the art world to be one of his most famous works. It is the most famous and most parodied portrait. The history of the Mona Lisa has long garnered much attention and stirred controversy with regard to the identity of the woman who sat for the painting. This painting is so special because of the type of color that Da Vinci created. This type of painting is called Sfumato, which is a type of shading that allowed him to shade differently (Phaidon, 1994). The color is a darker Hue, which also makes the painting even more interesting and Da Vinci has used a large amount of warm color. The lines in this painting are very precise and on point. The Mona Lisa has a geometric shape to it, the woman being the center focusing point in the painting. ThisShow MoreRelatedArt Of The Renaissance : Questions And Vocabulary1283 Words   |  6 PagesAssignment 12.5 (Art in the Renaissance) Assignment- Questions and Vocabulary Terms: Giotto, Masaccio, Botticelli, Perspective, Guild, Artisan, Apprentice, Patron, High Renaissance, Pope Julius II, Michelangelo, Northern Renaissance, madrigal. 1) Giotti di Bondone (1266-1337) was an Italian artist and architect from Florence in the very late Middle Ages. He is considered to be one of the most important artists in Italy because he contributed greatly to the Renaissance style of painting and art inRead MoreThe Italian Renaissance Essay772 Words   |  4 PagesThe Italian Renaissance Throughout history many art movements have emerged that artists and styles are classified under. One large contributing movement over the time period from about 1450 to about 1600 was known as the Italian Renaissance. However, what a large portion of people do not realize is that the Italian Renaissance was actually two main movements during that period of time. Each movement had key artists and a variation in style from the other movements. These two movements inRead MoreEssay on Renaissance vs Neoclassicism1295 Words   |  6 PagesTrefren, D Renaissance VS Neoclassicism How could two periods such as the Neoclassicism and the Renaissance be so successful and be focused on very different things? Neoclassicism and the Renaissance are two major periods in the history of art during which different forms of art including architecture, painting, music and visual arts, significantly advanced. It was during these periods, different artists became very famous as a result of the masterpieces reflecting how the ideologies and artisticRead MoreBaroque and High Renaissance760 Words   |  3 PagesBaroque and High Renaissance are two very important periods in art history, during that time a lot of different forms of art were created which include architecture, painting, and music. Baroque is just another word for having flashy symmetrical decoration. It’s a style that started around the 1600s in Italy and with its popularity it quickly spread around Europe. High Renaissance artist displaces the importance of draftsmanship, structured, and often-centralize d compositions. Many artists quickly riseRead MoreThe Renaissance in Art Essay957 Words   |  4 PagesRenaissance Art When the new upper class movement, Renaissance, occurred in Italy around the 14th century, a revival of the classical forms originally developed by the ancient Greeks and Romans, an intensified concern with secular life, and interest in humanism and assertion of the importance of the individual began. Thus, artists such as Mosaccio and Giotto depicted art that unlike the Middle Ages, showed emotions, feelings, and bright colors, thus demonstrating the deep concern for naturalismRead MoreComparing The Italian And Italian Renaissance1748 Words   |  7 PagesNorthern Renaissance and Italian Renaissance Differences between the Italian and Northern Renaissance The Renaissance was a period of great cultural and technological changes which swept Europe from the end of the 13 century. It was integral in developing Europe into a powerhouse. Although, each part of Europe was subjected to different changes, there were two primary renaissances which were most notable. They were the Italian and the Northern renaissance. Both of these renaissances had a profoundRead MoreRenaissance And The Italian Renaissance1396 Words   |  6 PagesThe Italian Renaissance had two distinct periods during its lifetime. The first being the â€Å"Early Renaissance†, which took place between the late 13th and the early 14th centuries. The second period was known as the â€Å"High Renaissance†, which took place during the 15th and 16th centuries. These two periods had very distinct foundations and styles behind the art and architecture of their respective periods. The Early Renaissance revived many old themes which later became the foundations for the Hi ghRead MoreThe Ugly Renaissance Discussion Of Italy1575 Words   |  7 PagesThe Ugly Renaissance Discussion 1. Why did the Renaissance originate in Florence and prosper for so many years? In many ways, Italy had benefits over northern Europe in detaching from the feudal system and accumulating enormous amounts of wealth. I think that above all else, geography was Italy’s anchor in this respect. Being a projecting land mass sticking out into the Mediterranean Sea, and beneficially located between the main part of Europe and the Byzantine Empire, cities within Italy had littleRead MoreThe Renaissance And Its Influence On Classical Culture1101 Words   |  5 Pages The renaissance began in Italy and spanned over 150 years, from the late 13th century to the early 17th century. It was a time of great invention and discovery. Renaissance means â€Å"rebirth† in French, as it was a rebirth of interest in classical culture. During this era the focus became more human centered, known as classical humanism. This was an occasion of great innovation, scientific discovery and creativity. During this period linear perspective began to be used in visual art to create anRead MoreDifference Between Baroque Art And Renaissance Art843 Words   |  4 PagesThe Renaissance era and the Baroque era are two very distinct periods in art history that hold different styles of art. The Renaissance was a period from the 14th to 17th century that sparked a cultural movement in Renaissance art. The Baroque was a period in art history that started around 1600. Renaissance art was a distinct style of art that involved painting, sculpture, and other forms of art. Renaissance artists created artworks that represented religion, frescos, and privately commissioned

4.Sociology Is The Study Of Society Using Empirical...

4. Sociology is the study of society using empirical investigation, data analysis, and assessment of theory to explore social life. It is also the study of societies influence on a person and the world around them. Sociology is one of the social sciences – disciplines that examine the human or social world. In summary, sociology is the study of human groups and societies, giving emphasis to analysis of the cultures and subcultures of the industrialized world. There are many social factors to sociology such as: religion, ethnicity, race, class, gender, sexuality, family, physical attributes, economic status, and education. At a personal level, sociology can explain social causes and consequences of such things as racial and gender†¦show more content†¦It was not until 1942 when Clifford Shaw and Henry McKay began using this theory to focus on juvenile delinquency. This would soon turn into the Social Disorganization Theory. In this theory, it explains that when things begin to become unorganized, crime begins to arrive and pressure within the central district to expand outward begins to arrive as well. After studying neighborhoods, Shaw and McKay realized that neighborhoods that had a large diversity rate and were below the poverty line tend to have higher crime rates. They believed that juvenile delinquency was not a result of the individual itself, but as response to their surroundings. Shaw and McKay also discovered four assumptions as to why delinquency happens: 1. The first assumption is that after a community collapses, people living within disadvantaged neighborhoods are responding to the environmental conditions. 2. The second is the rapid growth of immigration in urban disadvantage neighborhoods. With more people living in a small space, crime begins to arrive. 3. The third is businesses located closely to the disadvantaged neighborhoods are influenced by competition and dominance. 4. The fourth is that disadvantaged urban neighborhoods lead to the development of criminal values that replace normal society values. 5. In 1947, the Differential Association Theory was created by Edwin Sutherland who was the firstShow MoreRelatedSociology As A Scientific Discipline Essay2959 Words   |  12 PagesSOCIOLOGY AS A SCIENTIFIC DISCIPLINE Is sociology a scientific discipline? The issue of whether sociology is a science or a scientific discipline is an issue that has raised a lot of controversy for a long time. There are scholars who subscribe sociology is a science while others claim it is not. Even sociologists themselves have been divided on the issue example Emile Durkheim and Auguste Comte are for the view that sociology is a science while German Sociologist Max-Weber does not subscribe toRead MoreBriefly Outline the Distinctive Features of the Sociological Approach to Understanding Human Life and the Illustrate How You Would Use Sociology to Make Sense of Globalisation.1554 Words   |  7 PagesSociology is the systematic, sceptical and critical study of the way that people do things together .It’s not a science that simply lists facts and figures about society. Instead it becomes a form of consciousness, a way of thinking, a critical way of seeing the world. It welcomes you to challenge the obvious, to q uestion the world as it is taken for granted and to de-familiarising the familiar. This is what empowers critical thinking which triggers the development of the understanding of the humanRead MoreThe Development of the Chicago Schools1684 Words   |  7 Pagesof the ecological studies of crime found by the Chicago School and how the findings have shaped our understanding of crime in the 21st century. Firstly by introducing the Chicago School theory, also known as the, Theory of Social Disorganisation and the Ecological School Theory. The University of Chicago formed a department of Sociology in 1892 its focus related to issues in Criminology and Sociology, with interests in and towards Social Psychology along with Urban Sociology. The main focus ofRead MoreThe Objectivity Of The Social Researcher Is Fatally Compromised When He Or She Takes Sides2469 Words   |  10 PagesTopic: Critically analyse the claim that the objectivity of the social researcher is fatally compromised when he or she takes sides. Introduction: There are different major concepts in sociology for the research purposes including objectivity, subjectivity and value freedom. Social researcher is not allowed to influence his view due to his values in value freedom concept. It is generally accepted idea that the human being has got values but in will be considered that the sociologist has no valuesRead MoreMoral Panic Essay1130 Words   |  5 Pagessocially accredited experts pronounce their diagnosis and solutions; ways of coping are evolved or (more often) resorted to; the condition then disappears, submerges or deteriorates and becomes visible (Cohen 1972: 9). Cohen was using this term for a phenomenon in Great Britain in his book Folk Devils and Moral Panics primarily about the rockers who vandalised in a small town in the early 60. American scholars quickly adopted, used (and often overused) this termRead MoreThe Transition from Civilian to Front Line Combat Soldier: A Thematic Analysis1191 Words   |  5 Pages Introduction In the past there was a linear path that kept people in the same career throughout their life, in today’s society with job roles more varied, diversity in career transition has occurred (Brown, 2000). Previous research by Dolliver (1999, cited in Brown, 2000) has shown that self efficacy is a factor for a change in career. Fischer et al (1993) noted that the alteration of an individual’s environment alters their normality, along with Viney’s (1980) findings that for psychological growthRead MoreSocial Disorganization Theory On Urban Ecology And Burgess s Concentric Model3193 Words   |  13 Pagesbonds between an individual and institutions of socialization will lead to delinquency. Over time, there has been much empirical support for the theory and extensions have been made to include more reliable measures of social disorganization within a community. This paper will discuss the origins of the theory developed by Shaw and McKay, then move forward to prominent empirical support, social disorganization research on suburban areas and lead up to valid criticism of the theory. Finally, thereRead MoreThe Dichotomy Between Structure And Agency Essay5109 Words   |  21 Pagesdeliberate decision-making by individuals), social order (creating and maintaining stable and orderly functioning of society) and the determinant of social change (how society evolves and change). All social theorists, classical and modern are concerned with these three issues (Joas and Knobl, 2013). An appreciation of this is important for understanding structure-agency dichotomy in sociology. The questions to ask here are: what is agency and what is structure? Agency has to do with individual’s capacityRead MoreProblems Faced by Sociology as a Science and How They Can Be Alleviated2756 Words   |  12 PagesSOCIAL SCIENCES. SOCIOLOGY NAME : EMMANUEL WINA MUSHALA COMPTER NUMBER : 11067080 COURSE CODE : S 111 LECTURER : MR. MATAA MWIYA TUTORIAL : MONDAY 14 – 13 HOURS. DUE DATE : FRIDAY 16TH SEPTEMBER, 2011. ASSIGNMENT : ONE QUESTION : WITH EXAMPLES, CRITICALLY DISCUSS THE PROBLEMS FACED BY SOCIOLOGY AS A SCIENCE AND INDICATE HOW SUCH PROBLEMS CAN BE REDUCED OR ALLEVIATED. This essay is aimed at critically discussing the problems faced by sociology as a science andRead More The research Process Essay3351 Words   |  14 Pagesand conducted empirical research (people such as D. Hume, I. Kant, C. Darwin, I. Newton etc) of centuries past, if they had not begun â€Å"systematic studies of natural phenomena† from which man gained â€Å"not only insight into, but a great measure of control over, the physical universe, quite beyond the wildest dreams of the earliest pioneers in these fields† (Wilson Gee, 1950, Pg 179), it is arguable we would still be a religious driven, superstitious backwards people in a feudalist society, never advancing

Criminal justice free essay sample

Intelligence and Surveillance Barber-ism #3 Chapter 7 notes The text does a pretty poor Job of defining intelligence gathering and the difference between strategic and tactical intelligence. Let me take a shot at it and see if I can make it simple. Criminal intelligence in its most simple form is gathering information on the places a person goes, the folks the person interacts with, and the business in which the person is engaged because it is suspected the person is involved in, has been involved in, or will be involved in criminal behavior. Now, that may seem as awkward as the book definition and if it does I apologize. But it makes more sense to me than does the text. Heres the best way to distinguish strategic intelligence from tactical intelligence for our purposes. Strategic intelligence is information gathering for the purpose of building a criminal case. Tactical intelligence is information gathering for the purpose of executing a specific police action [usually, that translates arrest]. Misskelley refused to testify against Echols and Baldwin even though he was offered a deal in reduction time in his jail sentence. Misskelley was interrogated for 12 hours without his parents or an attorney present during this. Jessie Misskelley had a low IQ score of 72 indicating that he was mentally disabled and even after knowing this the West Memphis police still continued to interrogate him. Although he recanted his so called confession within hours after speaking to the police, it still played a major role in all three convictions of himself, Damien Echols and Jason Baldwin. I feel that Jessie was definitely coerced in making this confession. He failed to provide the correct details of the crime which included the cause of death, times the murders took place and the materials that were used in the murders. He often repeated what information Detective Ridge spoke of in the interrogation. Finally, approximately 46 minutes of the 12 hour interrogation was recorded on tape. In the case of State of Iowa, Appellant v. Rasheem Damonte BOGAN, I feel that Bogan and Misskelley were treated very similarly. They were both held for multiple hours and left with no other option other than to confess. Misskelley did sign a rights form however. Any information that Misskelley spoke of during that confession should not be included in the evidence or be considered by the jury. There is very little direct or circumstantial evidence that is present to support Misskelley’s confession. Misskelley begins his confession by telling Detective Ridge that he received a phone call from Jason Baldwin on May 5, 1993. This could not be possible because Jessie did not have access to a phone due to the fact that he was spending the night at a friends house who did not have a phone. Misskelley then continued to tell Detective Ridge that he met Baldwin and Echols at 9 A. M. on that Wednesday morning, which would be when the boys were in school. The boys did not skip school that day and they were all accounted for in class. Misskelley would go on to tell multiple different times at which they went to the woods. He then said that they walked to Robin Hood, located by Blue Beacon Truck Wash. This location was very recognized by the media during May 1993. Ridge then says, â€Å"Behind Blue Beacon? † and Jessie responds, â€Å"Behind it, right back there behind it. † Jessie clearly did not state the location of the crime scene only repeating what Ridge said. Misskelley went on to tell Ridge what went on while they were in the woods. He said, â€Å"Damien hit this one real bad, and then uh, he started screwing them and stuff. † From the records of the Medical Examiner there no evidence that the boys were raped. There was anal-dilation present in two of the boys but that is most likely from the water and there was no tearing which would occur during rape. Jessie was then presented with a picture from the newspaper that had the three boys that were the victims. He was told to identify the boys by their names and point out which one Damien supposedly hit. Jessie could not accurately name the boys. He goes back to the occurrence of Damien striking the boy and said that he â€Å"bruised him all up real bad†, which could not have happened because bruises would not occur on impact. Misskelley then says that he leaves and comes back multiple times during this time. He says that himself, Echols, and Misskelley took the boys clothes off and that there was blood present on them. There was no blood found any of the children’s clothes. Misskelley then said, â€Å"Then they tied them up, tied their hands up, they started screwing them and stuff, cutting them and stuff and I turned around and looked, and then I took off running. There no evidence of violent sodomy on any of the children and the children were â€Å"hog tied†, wrist to ankle, which would be a position to sodomize someone. The â€Å"hog tied† position doesn’t align with the boys being on their backs. Jessie states that he left the scene, but when asked further questions by Ridge he continues to say what happened. During the trial, Misskelley tells a slightly different story than which he told when interrogated on June 3. He first told Detective Ridge that they walked to the woods, but then said that they rode their bikes. He changes the time that they went to the woods multiple times again. When the knife was introduced as a possible murder weapon it did not match the description that Misskelley had given. Jessie reports that he returned the crime scene after the murders had taken place, but the crime scene was blocked off and patrolled by the West Memphis Police Department who were watching to see if the criminal would indeed return. There were no reports made of Jessie’s appearance in the woods after the murders. Gitchell and Ridge ask Jessie if had killed any of the boys or harmed them in anyway and his response was no. He did say that he saw Christopher Byers be killed by Damien by choking him. There was no evidence that Christopher Byers had been choked or strangled. The information that Jessie Misskelley provides in the interrogation and in court was not admissible. There was no evidence to support any of his accusations or statements. I think this proves that Misskelley was coerced into this confession. Direct evidence that supports the Echols/Baldwin convictions is the young girl at the softball game that claimed she heard Damien Echols say he killed the boys and would kill two more before he turned himself in. Another piece of direct evidence is the â€Å"prisoner snitch† who claimed that Baldwin confessed to killing the boys. When the young girl form the softball game took the stand she failed to answer any questions that she was asked. The â€Å"prisoner snitch† should not have been put on the stand either. They failed to include that the prisoner was informed of Jason Baldwin’s accusation by his parole person. The court would not allow the parole person to say that this was how the prisoner became aware of the situation. One of the reasons that he was included in the trial because juries love prisoner testimonies. Circumstantial evidence that supports the Echols/Baldwin convictions was the knife that was found in the pond behind the boys mobile home. This knife should not have been included in the evidence because there was no proof of who put it there. The other knife that belonged to Mr. Byers should have been handled with more care. The chain of existence and chain of evidence needed to be put together and handled with more caution. When Byers was asked about the blood that was found on the knife he changed his story from what it was before, which should have stopped the jury. The hair that was found in the shoe lace could have been one of the only piece of evidence that was qualify as circumstantial evidence, but the laboratory work was not done well enough. I do not think any of this evidence was enough to convict Damien Echols or Jason Baldwin. Overall, I think that the evidence and confession should not have been enough to convict Damien, Jason, or Jessie. I believe that Jessie Misskelley was coerced into giving a false confession. The statements that were made by Misskelley do not support the real fact of the investigation. More investigating should have been done on Mr. Byers. The â€Å"big† knife belonged to Mr. Byers and blood was found on it. His story was not complete and changed multiple times. Justice was served when all three boys were released from jail after the appeals.

QUALITY INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS Essays -

QUALITY INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS A quality interpersonal relationship is a relationship which is built on understanding of self and others. A quality interpersonal relationship goes beyound just being casually aquainted with others to sharing with and gaining an understanding of one another. What I mean by sharing with is that you get a feeling for each other. I can empathize with you and see things through your eyes. When a quality interpersonal relationship is present there's certain amount of synergy that takes place between the persons involved in the relationship. A good example of a quality interpersonal relationship could be found within the strong family unit. If we were to study a family that is close knit what would we see. We would most likely see the following characteristics: individual respect, trust, open lines of communication, open mindedness, patience, empathy, love and many other attributes which add up to a strong interpersonal relationship. With in a strong family you find people that truely feel for each other. For example if Mom is sick the morale of the other family members goes down. If Dad gets a promotion the hold family shares the feelings of esteem with Dad. The point I'm trying to make is that in quality interpersonal relationship you will start to feel some of things that I feel which allows you to better understand me and communicate with me. Although a quality interpersonal relationship sounds like the best thing since Campbell soup and the Gerry-curl it's not a relationship that's easily achieved. To achieve a quality interpersonal relationship takes time, effort, desire, understanding, trust, disclosure, and feedback, effective communication, and etc. When we first meet a person we don't immediately establish an interpersonal relationship. As implied in the opening paragraphs, a quality interpersonal relationship goes for beyound conducting casual conversation. It takes time to build an interpersonal relationship. Why? People like to interact; however, they are protective of there feelings and don't immediately open up to let you inside to see who's live there. What I'm saying is to establish an interpersonal relationship with others you need to know things about them and get some perceptiion of how they interpret things. To get this type of understanding about another person takes time. A good example would be the development of a friendship. Think of your best friend. This is probably one of the most productive inpersonal relationships that exist for you. Now go back from the time you met up until now. How did you get to become such best friends? As you think through the process you find those things that lead you to become best friends are the some of the same things that are required to build and interpersonal relationship. I think the depth or even mere existance of an interpersonal relationship hinges on disclosure and feedback. Let's talk about the importance of disclosure and feedback in a quality interpersonal relationship. First of all let me give credit where credit is do. My ideas of disclosure and feedback come from the self- disclosure model developed by Joseph Luft and Harrington Ingham. The model has become know and Johari's window. The premise of the model is that the more we disclose about ourselves and get feedback the more we learn about ourselves and the more others learn about us. I believe there is a direct tie between this theory and how a quality interpersonal relationship is achieved. When I met the person who is now my best friend, I started the relationship with a casual hello, like most people do. As time passed, I found reasons to disclose things about me. Well guess what happen; as I started to disclose things about me he also shared things about him. As more time passed, we started to give feedback to each other about the characteristics and behaviors of each other. ! The longer relationship lasted and the more we disclosed the more we begin to trust each other. The more trust the more disclosure and feedback. This continued until we've developed an inseperable friendship and a top quality interpersonal relationship. So you can see it doesn't happen over night and it takes time and risk to build an interpersonal relationship. The risk comes in when

Wilfred Owen essays

Wilfred Owen essays Wilfred Edward Salter Owen, born March 18, 1893, was the oldest of four children of Tom and Susan Owen. His father's work as a railway clerk was supplemented by his mother's father until his death put the family in financial difficulties. The family tried to keep their life along middle class standards, but it was a struggle. The lack of money meant that Wilfred, who had dreamed of public school and Oxford, was limited to Birkenhead Institute and the Technical School of Shrewsbury. His faith in religion was strong in his youth, a "simple evangelical faith he shared with his mother." (Hibberd, 5) This conviction failed him, though, as he got older and began to explore poetry, in which he held his version of Truth that he could not reconcile with God. In the teachings of his youth, and in his stint as a lay assistant in Dunsden, he must have built the foundation that he would both expand on when confronted with the unimaginable and fight against when immersed in the absolute horror of war. The beginning of the war found Owen in France, but as a tutor rather than as a soldier. In June of 1914, he was tutoring and vacationing with family of actor Alfred Leger in the Pyrennes. He had met Laurent Tailhade, a poet known in the French salons. His youthful aspirations to be a renowned poet had grown in his association with the social circles of upper class he longed to be a part of. Like many youthful artists, he longed for fame and felt assured of his brilliance. In his lengthy memoirs, his brother says his only concern in the beginning of the war was to "safeguard his writing and to preserve for himself the opportunity to continue with his poetry at all costs." (H. Owen, v.III, 118) He did not consider enlisting and in a letter to his mother, he states, "My Life is worth more than my death to Englishmen" (Letter 302, pp. 130). His brother translates this as "He wrote to my mother that he considered his writing was of more importance to ...

Definition and Examples of a Writer

Definition and Examples of a Writer A writer is: (a) a person who writes (articles, stories, books, etc.); (b) an author: a person who writes professionally. In the words of author and editor Sol Stein, A writer is someone who cannot not write. Etymology:  From an Indo-European root, to cut, scratch, sketch an outline Examples and Observations Everyone is a writer. You are a writer. All over the world, in every culture, human beings have carved into stone, written on parchment, birch bark, or scraps of paper, and sealed into letterstheir words. Those who do not not write stories and poems on solid surfaces tell them, sing them, and, in so doing, write them on the air. Creating with words is our continuing passion.(Pat Schneider, Writing Alone and With Others. Oxford University Press, 2003)A writer is someone who writes, its true, but a writer is also someone with a large capacity for adversity. Youll want to cultivate that capacity. Stamina is a writers first quality.(Bill Roorbach, Writing Life Stories. Writers Digest, 2000)We all know its hard work. Nobody asked any one of us to become a writer. No one will care if you dont become one.No one but you, that is.(George V. Higgins, On Writing. Henry Holt, 1990)Writers are sentenced to their sentences, which sometimes set them free.(Adam Gopnik, As Big as the Ritz. The New Yo rker, September 22, 2014) Gushers and TricklersIn regard to the work habits of professional authors, Robertson Davies insisted that there are just two kinds of writers, gushers and tricklers. Take a moment to consider which category you fall into.[James] Thurber  was a gusher; for one story which was 20,000 words when finished, he wrote a total of 240,000, and fifteen different versions. It is interesting that the torrential Thurber is the one who talked most about that dread of all writers - drying up. . . . Frank OConnor was also a gusher; he rewrote some of his stories even after they had been published.The tricklers may be represented by William Styron, who says: I cant turn out slews of stuff each day. I wish I could. I seem to have some neurotic need to perfect each paragrapheach sentence, evenas I go along.  Dorothy Parker, also a trickler, said: I cant write five words but I change seven!The industry of the gushers commands respect; Joyce Cary, Frank OConnor, and  [Truman] Capotewe see them writ ing and  revising, rejecting pages by the handful, and finally piecing their work together from the mass. But the tricklers have an agony of their own; they cannot continue until the last line written is as right as they can make it. Both methods seem to take about an equal amount of time.(Robertson Davies,   A Voice from the Attic: Essays on the Art of Reading, rev. ed. Penguin, 1990) A Writing ExerciseBefore you begin writing about your life, I want you to think about how you feel about writing. We all have our personal mythology of what a writer is and does. I want you to write for fifteen minutes to complete the following sentence: A writer is someone who _______.Write for fifteen minutes without stopping, letting yourself explore the possibilities. Let go of all your inhibitions and enjoy yourself. Remember to be honest. When you are finished, take a look at what you have written. Did anything surprise you?If you are working with a partner, take turns reading what each of you has written and discuss the work.(Janet Lynn Roseman, The Way of the Woman Writer, 2nd ed. Haworth, 2003)Writers WriteIf you simply define a writer as someone who is writing, clarity sets in. Youre truly a writer when youre writing; and if you dont write regularly, dont pretend to give yourself that title. Start writing more, Ray Bradbury tells would-be writers at conferences, itll get ri d of all those moods youre having.(Kenneth John Atchity, A Writers Time: Making the Time to Write, rev. ed. W.W. Norton, 1995) You Are a WriterA writer is a writer. You care about writing. It isnt men or women. . . . You sit down, you write, you are not a woman, or an Italian. You are a writer.(Natalia Ginzburg, interviewed by Mary Gordon, Surviving History. The New York Times Magazine, Marc. 25, 1990)What Is a Writer Like?- A writer is like a bean plant: he has his little day, and then gets stringy.(attributed to E.B. White)- Being a writer is like being one of those riskily overbred pedigree dogsa French bulldog, for instancepoorly suited for survival despite their very special attributes. Being a writer is in defiance of Darwins observation that the more highly specialized a species, the more likelihood of extinction.(Joyce Carol Oates, A Widows Story: A Memoir. HarperCollins, 2011)- A writer is like a Gypsy. He owes no allegiance to any government. If he is a good writer he will never like the government he lives under. His hand should be against it and its hand will always be against him.(Ernest Hemingw ay, letter to Ivan Kashkin, Aug. 19, 1935)- Being a writer is like having homework every night for the rest of your life.(attributed to Lawrence Kasdan) The Downside of Being a WriterYou may have gathered from all this that I am not encouraging people to try to be writers. Well, I cant. You hate to see a nice young person run up to the edge of the cliff and jump off, you know. On the other hand, it is awfully nice to know that some other people are just as nutty and just as determined to jump off the cliff as you are. You just hope they realize what theyre in for.(Ursula K. Le Guin, The Language of the Night: Essays on Fantasy and Science Fiction, ed. by Susan Wood. Ultramarine, 1980)On the whole, professional writers are a lot of whining bastards who wouldnt last a day in a real job. . . . The true mortification of being a writer is having to meet other writers from time to time, and listen to their mundane egotistical rantings.(Duncan McLean, quoted by Jim Fisher in The Writers Quotebook: 500 Authors on Creativity, Craft, and the Writing Life. Rutgers University Press, 2006) Pronunciation: RI-ter Writers on Writing Toni Morrison on WritingWhy Do Writers Write?​Writers on Writing: E.B. WhiteWriters on Writing: Overcoming Writers BlockWriters on Rewriting Also see: WritingCollaborative WritingCompositionWriters BlockWriting CenterWriting GroupWriting Process

Great Depression 1930's Paragrapgh Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Great Depression 1930's Paragrapgh - Essay Example Being innovative is another important tenant. Just like authenticity, innovation is a loaded term. Also like authenticity, being innovative largely depends on the specific artist. In either case, graphic designers must not simply strive towards creating designs, but must also strive towards innovation in terms of theme, methods of creation, and even tools used. This is done most successful when accomplished in an authentic way. For instance, an artist creating their own design program or tool to then create the design would be regarded as both authentic and innovative. While in most aspects of the world stealing is viewed as naturally unethical, within graphic design this should not be the case. In this way there is the recognition that art and innovation should not be restricted by unnecessary barriers. This does not mean, of course, that a graphic designer should wholeheartedly steal another person’s design. Rather it means that portions of one piece of art should be readily and frequently combined with other pieces of art in a continuing series of designs. Combing falls into a category near stealing. Combining, however, involves the actual act of putting disparate styles or previously made works together to achieve a new product. Combining can be viewed as an aesthetic, but it can also be viewed as a technique. In both instances there is the recognition that past ideas or approaches should not be abandoned but reimagined in ways that seek to reignite the dormant aspects of human instinct that are entombed in these past approaches. Improvisation should also be recognized as a major design tenant. While for many people the idea of improvisation harkens back to jazz music and meandering styles, the link between improvisation and authentic expression should not be neglected. Improvisation removes the mind from needless

Marks and Spencer Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Marks and Spencer - Essay Example Its strategies in UK revolved around a) supply management b) brand power c) customer orientation and d) empowerment of employees. As it moved into the 90s, M&S needed to overcome the challenges identified above (Montgomery, 1994, HBS Case study # 9-391-089). Tools Value chain concept: The case highlights M&S emphasis on ‘value chain’ concept as a strategy for economizing on operations, maintaining long-term supplier/buyer relations and for quality control. Popularized by Porter as a competitive advantage tool, value chain concept dovetails the different operations of a buyer and his supplier(s) in order to achieve maximum efficiencies for cost control for both parties (Porter, 2004, Ch.2, pp.33-61 & 107). Using this strategy, M&S attained a strong reputation and position in UK market, where its net profit (your last name) 2 margin was around 10 to 11% in the 80s. In contrast, its overseas operations yielded just around 6% net profit due to external factors like tariffs a nd local competition. Differentiation: The case highlights the differences between the French, Canadian and UK markets. France is a high margin market and although the few customers who accessed M&S products are well satisfied, many others, especially the younger generation, preferred other brands.

The Sinking of the Aragon Essay Example for Free

The Sinking of the Aragon Essay With the outbreak of world one war the royal mail moved its home port to Newport, South Wales. However the Brittish government was in dire need of battle ships to strengthen their naval force. Many ships were converted from simply postal delivery vessels into war ready troop carrying ships. One of these ships was the Aragon The Aragon built in harland and wolf in Belfast was 9588 tons and could carry 306 first class 66 second class and 632 third class passengers. It was launched on the 23rd of Febuary 1905. The following information was gathered from an unsigned letter written by an officer of the Aragon to a Mr.  John William Hannay the father of a VAD on board the Aragon on her way to serve in palestine and Egypt. For two weeks the Aragon laid at anchor in the shelter of the harbour at Marseilles. Every day they would await sailing orders. At last they recieved orders and the ship, set sail. It set of in company with another transporter ship called the Nile and also with an escort of destroyers. On board there was 160 nursing sisters, 150 military officers, 2200 troops and the ships own officers and crew. In total there was 2700 poeople on board the Aragon. One of these men was my great grand uncle Thomas Cassin who was an Irish man and inlisted as a British solider. Along with the thousands of people on board ready to serve there was also 2500 bags of Christmas destined for Egypt. From Marseilles they set sail to Malta in safety. However There was some fierce weather and the sea became quite heavy. Many became sick. Miss Hannay the VAD nurse being sick for just one day. They arrived at the windy bay in Malta on the 23rd of December where they remained for four days until the 27th. They spent their Christmass holidays here in safety. On the fourth day they set out to sail again still in the company of the NIle and a fresh escort of destroyers. There were three destroyers in number, two of which were Japanese and the other British. They arrived near their destination, Alexandria Egypt, on the 30th of December in the morning. The port was just becoming visible to the naked eye on the horizion. Everyone was very excited to reach shore and every vantage point on the boat was filled with eager passengers looking on ward at the port. Many had packed their luggage and were already attired for disembarkation. It was heard that many were congradulating themselves on a safe voyage. The Aragon with the British destroyer Attack was entering the channel that leads to the port. They were already past the first buoy which indicated entrance into the channel. At this point a wireless message was intercepted from trawlers in the channels that there were mines further on. The Attack, being the senior ship, imediately signalled to the Aragon to follow them as they turned seawards. The trawelers which were there to direct the ships through the channel were doing the same and retreating. The Aragon had to keep well away from the buoy that they had already passed by when entering the port. Unkown to both the Aragon and the Attack there was a German submarine lurking in the depths of the waters right beside the buoy. It was unable to fire before because of the close proximity of the ship, if they did they would have endangered their own submarine. However now that the Aragon was turning seawards, she presented a perfect target for the Germans who took full advantage. The officers of the Aragon on duty on the bridge saw the periscope of the submarine and at the next instant the wake of a torpedo which was heading straight for the ship. In a desperate effort for surrvival the passengers and crew tried to turn the ship to avoid the torpedo but this was to no avail as the ship was quite slow. The explosion was a dull crashing blast and the ship shuddered violently. An officer who was on duty at the time was covered in glass as all the windows on the boat shattered. In the next instant the ship became aware to the fact that they had all been dreading. Everyone on board was at their sations in record time, orders were obeyed with precision. The first order given was the rescue of every sister. They were lowered into the rescue boats before doing anything else. This only took a few minutes and was carried out without a hitch. The boats they got on were the best in the ship and in a position to afford greatest possible facility for getting off. The Aragon sent a call for assitance to the shore and recieved a reply within seconds. By the time the sisters ships had got clear, the ship had taken a heavy list to starboard and had sunk deep astern. It remained like this for a few minutes. The Destroyer took this time to run up along side and the remaing passengers were ordered to get off. They managed to do this by attaching ropes from the Aragon to the Destoryer Attack. On other parts of the ship troops were ordered to take water as the rafts were let loose. In just moments the sea was full of struggling men. Many of the officers and troops were trying to get the remaining life boats into the water but they had become jammed by the list. The crew could now feel her sinking fast. It had become impossible to stand upon the deck. It was about fifteen minutes after the inicial explosion. The commander gave the order every man for himself! . There was a rush to get over the side of the boat but nowhere was there any sign of panic. The discipline was astounding as the troops clung on to each other, singing and cheering until they reached the water level. Then they broke into struggling masses. Then it was heard shes going and the Aragon began to sink rapidly astern. The Destroyer was still at rescue work but only one rope remained. One officer was trying to cross when they finally cut the remaining rope. He was thrown into the water between the two ships. He sank like a stone because his full uniform restricted him to swim. However he still managed to get to the surface and make his way onto the Destroyer. The Attack was full of both injured and dying. The Aragon was sinking rapidly, one could hear a roar of rushing water and smashing of internal fittings. Dozens of men still clung to the decks and at the last moment jumping into the water rather than be sucked under along with the ship. Many of their efforts for survial were futile as with the height that the bow had been raised because the ship had turned whilst it was sinking, they died on impact with the water. With a great surge, a roar of rushing water and the explosion of the ships boilers the Aragon was no more and it went beneath the surface. There was now silence over the men. The place where the ship once was, was now replaced by struggling men clinging to upturned boats and wreckage. The Destroyer was now alive with activity. As they attempted to move ahead to the safety of the harbour with all their injured on board, one man shouted and screamed and next instant there was a terrible explosion. The Destroyer was hit by another torpedo. The middle of the Destroyer had been smashed sending men flying into the air. OIl, fumes, splinters of wood and steel were sent in every direction. She broke into two halves and began to sink immedietly. Both the bow and the stern rising into the air as the middle(wher the torpedo hit) sank rapidly. Everyone jumped for the water. It was chaos around the remains of the destroyer. The only hope left for survival was two trawlers which were near at hand. Except for the trawlers the only rescue boats were the rafts from the Aragon which were already on their way to shore. Only wreckage and struggling men remained in the water, everything else had disappeared. However the rafts did an ecellent job, bringing hundreads to the trawlers near by. Other trawlers became visable on the horizon as the rushed at full speed towars the wreckage. However as the port was 80 miles away it took them some time to arrive and many men perished in this time. The temperature of the water was very cold and this contributed to some of the deaths. It took the trawlers an hour to reach the men but without them few would have survived. The VAD sisters who were the first to leave the Aragon arrived on shore at arround 2:30pm. It wasnt untill 4:30pm when the trawlers with the wounded and survivours arrived. The people on the shore were ready for them when they arrived and the wounded were rushed to hospital. In conclusion the Aragon was torpedoed 8 miles from Alexandria Egypt at 11am on Sunday December 30th 1917 and sank in twenty minutes. The escort for the Aragon the British Destroyer The Attack was also torpedoed about 5 minutes later. It took between 5 to 7 minutes to sink. The other transport ship The Nile with two Japanese destroyer escorts left the Aragon at day break, the day of the attack. They also came under submarine attack but managed to reach their destination safely. My great uncle unfortunately perished that day. It was hard for an Irish man to join the Brittish army. I imagine he would have recieved a lot of criticism for doing so, but he did what he thought was right. He fought with the allies and aggainst evil and for that my family is very proud of him.

Thrust Vectoring :: War Technology Technological Essays

Thrust Vectoring Imagine two US Air Force Jets with controls not responding, they are heading right for each other, the pilots don’t have enough time to eject, there’s a mid-air explosion, and the needless death of American servicemen. About one fifth of peacetime fighter losses during the past few years were due to loss of control. Now imagine that the US has been developing the technology to prevent this for the last decade, but due to budget problems this technology was never installed on our fighters. I’m talking about a Thrust Vectoring. This engineering term describes the use of an engines nozzle to direct the force coming from a jet engine in different directions other then straight out the back. Besides tragic, needless deaths, this technology has a military significance for front line fighter jets. With the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, Americans have seen the devastating power of our Air Force on Countries without a serious Air Defense network, like Is rael or Great Britain. These are countries with not just a Surface to Air Missile (SAM) threat, but an Air Force that can rival ours in its current state. Thrust Vectoring is the technology that will make our fighter jets true rulers of the air, not just on bombing runs, but air-to-air combat, better know as â€Å"Dog Fighting†. Thrust Vectoring was first used in a trivial form on Nazi Germany’s V-2 rockets. These rockets were devastating to the Allies in WWII with their accuracy due to graphite control vanes that helped the guidance of the missile. Modern rockets, both SAMs and Air-to-Air missiles have been using thrust vectoring to increase their agility in flight, and hence make them more lethal. During the Cold War German military planers recognized the shear numbers of Soviet fighters, and believing that any war would include intense Dog Fighting, began to look for ways to even the odds. Wolfgang Herbst with the Messerschmitt-Boelkow-Blohm, now Deutsche Aerospace, Company led a team in Post-Stall engineering. Post-Stall describes a flight condition in which normal flight controls, like flaps, are no longer sufficient to maintain the flight ability of the aircraft. His team investigated new flight laws to describe the movement of an aircraft in Post-Stall flying conditions.

How the Recession Effects Used Car Prices Essay

There are several factors which are affecting the price of new and used vehicles since the current recession began. Because people have been forced to hang on to their cars longer it has driven up the price of used cars because the pool of used cars has gotten smaller. New car sales have were down as well further pushing up the price of used vehicles since fewer people bought new cars during the recession. Fewer new car purchases equals less used cars. The production of new cars has also been cut meaning that there are less new cars in circulation which in turn means fewer used cars from sources like car rental places. The higher price of used cars has pushed some people to look for deals on new cars but dealer incentives have been reduced making the purchase of a new car less enticing then it would have been in the past. Because there are less new cars being produced, the price of new cars has also gone up. The high cost of gasoline has also affected the demand of new and used cars. As gas prices go up the demand for new cars goes down as people do not wish to spend as much money on their cars. So rather than make a high monthly car payment on a new vehicle they choose a lower payment on a used car or may chose to purchase the car outright. References: Why used-car prices are going to stay high for years: http://content.usatoday.com/communities/driveon/post/2012/05/why-used-car-prices-will-stay-high-for-years/1#.UGdhRJjA-kY Used-Car Prices Climb http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052970204136404577205383041923996.html As Gas Prices Go, So Go Prices for Used Cars http://moneyland.time.com/2012/05/31/as-gas-prices-go-so-go-prices-for-used-cars/

Baderman Island Family Vacations Essay

Baderman Island Family Vacations: Advertising, Creative, and Media Strategies Advertising not only works but is often unmatched in its capacity to reach major audiences, build brand awareness and personality, as well as stimulate curiosity and desire. But, more than ever, companies today [in this very competitive environment] need the right creative messages and media choices in an effort to break through the â€Å"noise† in order to get noticed, and therefore, remembered. This paper will outline Baderman Island’s Family Vacations advertising plan, further expanding on creative decisions and effective media strategies in an effort to increase market share. Baderman Island – Family Vacations Analysis Family getaways are one of the top reasons that guests stay at Baderman Island, regardless of whether the stay is a seven day excursion or a weekend family reunion. With so many activities to choose from such as: boat rentals, water skiing, snorkeling, scuba diving, tennis, golf, five secluded beaches, Oasis Spa, and gallery touring there is truly something for everyone in the family to enjoy, not to mention all the activities on the island are appropriate for visitors of all ages. The many unique selling points of Baderman Island Family Vacations consist of the island being self contained, all-inclusive, hosting an array of restaurants, three different hotels, and unlimited activities to entertain and relax all guests. Currently, the marketing situation consists of a website that is an excellent tool for attracting guests and showing them all the perks of the island through pictures and blogs. The blog is a new advancement to the website, but should prove to attract positively more guests through the testimonials of previous visitors. Target Audience The target audience for Baderman Island is the typical â€Å"family vacationers† who are looking for a resort that offers a variety of activities without having to leave the premises. These families will consist of parents with at least one child. The target family will be the family who consists of two adults within the household with at â€Å"least† 2-3 children to help maximize profits. All races, ethnicities and cultures are welcome. The target market will be an adult who enjoy warm weather vacations with family, spending quality time with each other enjoying activities and who have a love for the beach and fine art. The target audience will also consist of consumers who fall within the lower to middle class and above demographics searching for a family destination that does not require leaving the United States (U.  S. ). Not all families can afford the cost of securing passports and expensive air travel to the Caribbean. Creative Strategies A creative strategy is important to the overall execution of an advertising campaign. Team C will use a â€Å"positioning† approach as its creative strategy. In this approach Baderman Island will be clearly defined as the number one â€Å"all inclusive† destination for family travel. Brand image approach will also be incorporated into the strategy. This will help consumers correlate the Baderman Island brand as a top notch, high quality destination. This approach will be accomplish by using an easy to remember slogan, such as â€Å"Baderman Island Family Vacations, the Finest Place to Reconnect,† as well as further using the ever popular slogan, â€Å"Relax, Enjoy, Indulge. † Increased emphasis will be placed on marketing the concept that Baderman Island is a unique destination specializing in family activities. This will enable Baderman Island to distinguish themselves from other competitive resorts in the marketplace. All creative advertisement associated with the resort will be colorful and eye catching; it will feature pictures that depict happy families vacationing and spending time together, further providing a visual of what family vacationing could be for the potential customer. On radio spots sound bites will be used of customer testimonials of how happy they were when they vacationed on the island. TV ads will also depict families enjoying themselves on the beach, playing golf, in the spa, visiting the museums and art galleries, and participating in the many sports activities offered on the island. The television ads will also highlight the many pricing plans and payment options where applicable. Positioning Statement Baderman Island’s positioning concept will explain that Baderman Island Family Vacations is for vacationers with families who are seeking a luxury resort â€Å"experience† to reenergize from their busy lives and reconnect with family and friends, and that Baderman Island Family Resorts is one of the most luxurious destinations in the world. The island offers four star accommodations that highlight a world-class spa featuring a full range of treatments designed around the resort’s natural springs, sophisticated purpose-designed meeting facilities, and an assortment of other amenities all delivered with a high level of personalized service (University of Phoenix, 2008). All of this is made available on this self-contained, all-inclusive resort island that is surrounded by the beautiful Kelsey River. Golfing, fishing, spa facilities, museum excursions and a beautiful beach are all available to vacationers of this island. Message Platform Baderman’s message platform is to develop Baderman’s brand and when potential guest see the logo, they will envision the beautiful crystal clear waters, which symbolizes peacefulness as well as relaxation. Presently, Baderman Island is expanding the brand on the 1,600 acres of land they own. 750 acres are operational. See map below. (University of Phoenix, 2008). In an effort to increase brand recognition Baderman Island will rely heavily on word-of-mouth marketing. The expectation will be that satisfied guest will continuously sell the brand for the resort while Baderman Island continues to make capital improvements. Once the Baderman Island’s guest vacation experience is over and they leave, the hope is that they will tell their friends about the wonderful experience during their stay. Word-of-mouth advertising is one of the most effective advertising vehicles when feedback is 100% positive. Baderman Island will strive to be the number one vacationing spot. Baderman Island will be well known for the following attributes: Owning an island, which exclusively promotes their brand, and having facilities that offer excellent customer service. Baderman Island makes a point of listening to guests who have enjoyed previous stays and will continue to develop innovative ideas that include customer feedback on how to improve future stays. Media Strategies and Objectives Print media is one of the most efficient ways to reach potential customers. For example, magazines are a medium that has a number of special-interest publications segments that can reach Baderman target audience (Wisconsin Department of Tourism, 2009). As a result, print ads, billboards, and brochures will be Baderman Island’s priority media vehicles of choice. Baderman Island will also use a number of advertising campaigns which will run a variation of television commercials, all emphasizing family fun. An additional strategy that Baderman will use in order to develop a relationship with potential guests is through the use of [developing] creative brochures which will assist with enticing guest towards booking a vacation on Baderman’s Island property. After all, they are inquiring about Baderman’s vacationing experience, so brochures will bring Baderman’s Island Vacations upfront and personal to future guest. Guests will be able to look at full color ads while reading a wealth of information regarding services, pricing plans, recreation packages, spa schedules and a host of activities used to keep children occupied during the day. The objective is to have future guest pick-up and carry brochures with them so they can view the material at their leisure and share it with family and friends. Baderman will capitalize on the idea that the brochure is portable which gives the upper hand rather then relying on guest to remember a 60 second commercial. Lastly, radio air time will also be explored as a media option. There are seven times as many radio stations as television stations in the U. S. (Wisconsin Department of Tourism, 2009) therefore; this is a medium that Baderman will seek to explore with the assistance of a limited-service agency. Strategy RationaleThe rationale behind the creative strategies and campaign message is to ensure that Baderman Island Vacations stands out over the competition. Creating the easy to remember message of â€Å"Baderman Island Family Vacations, the Finest Place to Reconnect,† will capture the image of Balderman Island at its fullest. In addition, using vibrant colors within ads and â€Å"real† people will not only be an eye catcher, but also illustrates the fun side of Balderman Island. Using photos of smiling and happy families doing fun activities together as part of advertisement features will say it all. Baderman Island will use similar stock photos in all advertisements. By placing the emphasis on â€Å"family† the brand image that Baderman Island will be known for will be something that both existing and potential customers will relate too. The resort will also seek to create a feeling of nostalgia where people who see the billboards, magazines, website, or hear radio advertisements will wish and want to experience what Baderman Island offers. An addition strategy will be to choose air time during busy traffic hours to advertise services. What better time to dream being somewhere else than when a person is stuck in a traffic jam. As a family resort, Baderman Island believes in getting and giving the best. As customers, Baderman personnel staff expects the best on both products and services from providers, and it is only right that the resort gives the same respect, treatment and consideration to their customers. Baderman Island stands on the priority objective of treating customers â€Å"just like family. †Supportive ResourcesAlthough many companies have opted towards using outside advertising agencies exclusively for assistance with creative ideas, Balderman Island prefers to do it themselves. Baderman Island’s in-house creative teams provide a range of services depending on the resorts needs and are familiar with the resorts rich history and many products and services. The in-house team is also better equipped to handle adhoc problems regarding advertisements within a timely manner. Keeping creative development in-house will provide the resort more control with lower risks of having proprietary confidential information leaking into the wrong hands, also keeping in mind that external agencies have other clients to assist. In addition to risk management, in-house creative resources for creative support make it easier to coordinate and have a more â€Å"personal† touch with the service versus an outside agency. In addition to in-house support Baderman Island will seek advice from limited-services agencies which specializes in one aspect of creative process; usually providing creative production work or the purchase of media space (Wisconsin Department of Tourism, 2008). A limited-services agency will be used in order to coordinate radio air time and in some instances magazine space. ConclusionAs stated earlier, Baderman Island Family Vacations is striving to continue to compete in a very competitive environment. With the consistent advertising message, â€Å"Baderman Island Family Vacations, the Finest Place to Reconnect,†Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Baderman will further expand on that message by building upon a media strategy that emphasis family, fun, relationships, and value. Therefore, a media strategy that focuses on â€Å"awareness advertising,† where the attempts to build Baderman Island’s image and familiarity with the resort brand and excellent services will be their ticket towards marketing success. Baderman Island is confident that by using multi-media vehicles of print ads, billboards, brochures, television commercials, and radio spots their target audience will be effectively reached. Six months post campaign launch, Baderman will evaluate their advertising effectiveness through monitoring and post-evaluation tools and re-evaluate their marketing plan accordingly based on results.

The Civil Rights Movements of the 60s essays

The Civil Rights Movements of the 60s essays On May 4th, 1970, four students were killed, eight injured, when shots fired out everywhere across the Kent State University Campus (www.may4.org) . This tragedy both symbolically, and chronologically marked the end of a turbulent decade the decade of discontent as some people called it (Gottlieb, 17). This incident was the result of a peace protest against President Richard Nixon, and was just one example of the many political, cultural, and spiritual revolutions that erupted from this decade. The Civil Rights Movement, the Anti-War Movement, and the Womens Rights Movement were three of the largest and most revolutionary ideas which sprung from a generation of counter-culturists. Each Movement contributed to the future American culture in varying degrees. Each had their heroes, their enemies, and their own morale. These movements were the frameworks for a young generation to build upon, who were looking to find a new way of life, and seeing the world. The assassination of President Kennedy on November 22nd, 1963 seems to be the turning point for a generation of teenagers. This was the event after which America began to change. (Gottlieb, 18). People felt that something had been taken away from them, and there was nothing to fill the void that was left. This is when the restlessness and upheaval of a culture began. There had already been instigation, during Kennedys term, of the most lasting and continual movement that has ever come out of the United States. Led by a strong, and devoted citizen, Martin Luther King Jr. The Civil Rights movement had already begun. The fight for equal rights among blacks and whites had already started to change the way America was thinking. It was affecting the way Congress, and politics in general were running. The predictability of votes, and discipline of Congress was beginning to become weak. As House Majority Leader Carl Albert ...

Craig v. Boren - Intermediate Scrutiny Case

Craig v. Boren - Intermediate Scrutiny Case In Craig v. Boren, the U.S. Supreme Court established a new standard of judicial review, intermediate scrutiny, for laws with gender-based classifications. The 1976 decision involved an Oklahoma law that prohibited the sale of beer with 3.2% (non-intoxicating) alcohol content to males under age 21 while permitting the sale of such low-alcohol beer to females over the age of 18. Craig v. Boren ruled that the gender classification violated the Equal Protection Clause of the Constitution. Curtis Craig was the plaintiff, a resident of Oklahoma who was over the age of 18 but under 21 at the time the suit was filed. David Boren was the defendant, who was governor of Oklahoma at the time the case was filed. Craig sued Boren in a federal district court, alleging that the law violated the Equal Protection Clause. The district court had upheld the state statute, finding evidence that such gender-based discrimination was justified because of gender-based differences in arrests and traffic injuries caused by males and females ages 18 to 20. Thus, the court held that there was justification on the basis of safety for discrimination. Fast Facts: Craig v. Boren Case Argued: Oct. 5, 1976Decision Issued: Dec. 20, 1976Petitioner: Curtis Craig, a male who was over 18 but under 21, and Carolyn Whitener, an Oklahoma alcohol vendorRespondent: David Boren, Governor of OklahomaKey Questions: Did an Oklahoma statute violate the 14th Amendments Equal Protection Clause by establishing different drinking ages for men and women?Majority Decision: Brennan, Stewart, White, Marshall, Blackmun, Powell, StevensDissenting: Burger, RehnquistRuling: The Supreme Court ruled that the statute violated the 14th Amendment by making unconstitutional gender classifications. Intermediate Scrutiny: a  New Standard The case is significant to feminism because of the intermediate scrutiny standard. Prior to Craig v. Boren, there had been much debate about whether sex-based classifications or gender classifications, were subject to strict scrutiny or mere rational basis review. If gender became subject to strict scrutinies, like race-based classifications, then laws with gender classifications would have to be narrowly tailored to achieve a compelling government interest. But the Supreme Court was reluctant to add gender as another suspect class, along with race and national origin. Laws that did not involve a suspect classification were subject only to rational basis review, which asks whether the law is rationally related to a legitimate government interest.​ Three Tiers Are a Crowd? After several cases in which the Court seemed to apply a higher scrutiny than rational basis without really calling it heightened scrutiny, Craig v. Boren finally made clear that there was a third tier. Intermediate scrutiny falls between strict scrutiny and rational basis. Intermediate scrutiny is used for sex discrimination or gender classifications. Intermediate scrutiny asks whether the laws gender classification is substantially related to an important governmental objective.Justice William Brennan authored the opinion in Craig v. Boren, with Justices White, Marshall, Powell and Stevens concurring, and Blackmun joining in most of the opinion.  They found that the state had not shown a substantial connection between the statute and the benefits alleged and that statistics were insufficient to establish that connection.  Thus, the state had not shown that gender discrimination substantially served a government purpose (in this case, safety).  Blackmuns concurring opinion arg ued that the higher, strict scrutiny, a standard was met. Chief Justice Warren Burger and Justice William Rehnquist wrote dissenting opinions, criticizing the Courts creation of an acknowledgment of a third tier, and arguing that the law could stand on the rational basis argument. They remained opposed to establishing the new standard of intermediate scrutiny.  Rehnquists dissent argued that a liquor vendor who had joined the suit (and the majority opinion accepted such standing) had no constitutional standing as his own constitutional rights were not threatened.Edited and with additions by   Jone Johnson Lewis

Research design Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Design - Research Paper Example These factors, according to Hsieh (2011), have a profound impact on the actions, behaviors, and interests of a student in language classrooms, which either hinders or promotes their performances in learning foreign languages. In addition, gender has become increasingly important as a perspective in foreign language acquisition investigations, which have highlighted females as being more positive and interested in comparison to males. This gender perspective is especially salient because it has important pedagogical and theoretical implications in the learning of foreign languages, especially because females tend to use more learning strategies and do so more effectively (ONeill, 2008). However, there is a dearth of information about the very nature of these differences in nature and whether they are linked to attitudes, motivations, or both. Therefore, investigating affective aspects is increasingly crucial with the addition of the gender perspective to enhance the outcomes and inter ests of students in learning foreign language (Lee, 2005). This study will seek to contribute to current literature by providing more gender-sensitive insight for a Muslim country. The in-depth interview method will be used for this research study because it is considered as the best fit for collecting social and personal concerns, approach, motivations, beliefs, and attitudes (Babbie, 2010). In addition, it is possible to vary the scope of the interview method from investigations on a large scale to studies on a small scale that can be conducted by one researcher. This is especially because the rationale behind in-depth interviews involves attaining a snapshot of attitudes and conditions at a single moment or point (Fowler, 2013). For this research study, the interview questions will be adapted from the ATMB, or â€Å"Attitude Motivation Test Battery†, by Gardner. The selection of Gardner’s Attitude-Motivation Test

Quality in Health Care Administration Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

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Development Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Development - Essay Example Therefore, private sector has become important in sparking development. However, the task is so overwhelming that it cannot be taken up by a single sector. Therefore, NGOs and charity groups have become very significant in ensuring that development is achieved. Different countries are willing to initiate development in various parts of the world. However, the private sector cannot be entrusted with monitoring how the funds are being utilized. As a result, non-governmental organizations have been given this mandate because they have specialized in ensuring that the development funds reach the right people. However, private sector cannot be left behind in development matters (De & Yehoue 2013). It has been instrumental in identifying areas that need more attention in order to achieve any form of development. In addition, it has been in the forefront in ensuring grants given to the government to start development projects are utilized effectively for the benefits of all people. Private sector partnership with charity groups and NGOs would enhance efficiency. All these parties have a single agenda of initiating development in the society. Therefore, once they bring their ideas and resources together, they would be able to achieve prosperity (Hodge, Greve, & Boardman 2010). This is through closing the gaps that existed which were being used by the elite group and politicians to embezzle funds that were meant for development. Content knowledge in topics such as climate change, financial access and last mile delivery provides non-governmental organizations with an advantage in assessing the needs of the community, policy implications, and customized solutions for specialized contexts (Desai & Potter 2002). Moreover, decades of experience by the non-governmental organizations which have been working with communities is significant in integrating cultural awareness, trusted relationship, and

Linguistic Research Essay Example for Free

Linguistic Research Essay When does language begin? In the middle 1960s, under the influence of Chomsky’s vision of linguistics, the first child language researchers assumed that language begins when words (or morphemes) are combined. (The reading by Halliday has some illustrative citations concerning this narrow focus on â€Å"structure. †) So our story begins with what is colloquially known as the â€Å"two-word stage. † The transition to 2-word utterances has been called â€Å"perhaps, the single most disputed issue in the study of language development† (Bloom, 1998). A few descriptive points: Typically children start to combine words when they are between 18 and 24 months of age. Around 30 months their utterances become more complex, as they add additional words and also affixes and other grammatical morphemes. These first word-combinations show a number of characteristics. First, they are systematically simpler than adult speech. For instance, function words are generally not used. Notice that the omission of inflections, such as -s, -ing, -ed, shows that the child is being systematic rather than copying. If they were simply imitating what they heard, there is no particular reason why these grammatical elements would be omitted. Conjunctions (and), articles (the, a), and prepositions (with) are omitted too. But is this because they require extra processing, which the child is not yet capable of? Or do they as yet convey nothing to the child—can she find no use for them? Second, as utterances become more complex and inflections are added, we find the famous â€Å"over-regularization†Ã¢â‚¬â€which again shows, of course, that children are systematic, not simply copying what they here. Chomsky’s Influence Research on child language was behavioristic in the years that preceded Chomsky’s critique of Skinner, and his publication of Syntactic Structures: â€Å"though there had been precedents for setting problems in the study of child language acquisition at a more abstract, cognitive level by continental scholarsmost notably, Roman Jacobson (e. g. , 1941/1968)much of the research on child language acquisition at midcentury was influenced to a greater or lesser degree by the highly concrete, behaviorist orientation of B. F. Skinner and others. Two events were of major important in the change from behaviorist to cognitive thinking in research on child language. The first was Chomsky’s classic review (1959) of Verbal Behavior, Skinner’s major book-length work on the learning and use of language; the second Handout for Psy 598-02, summer 2001 Packer Two-Word Utterances 2 was the detailed longitudinal study of the acquisition of English by three young children conducted over a 17-month period by Roger Brown and others in the early 1960s (Brown, 1973). † Ritchie, W. C. , Bhatia, T. K. (1999). Child language acquisition: Introduction, foundations, and overview. In W. C. Ritchie T. K. Bhatia (Eds. ), Handbook of child language acquisition, (pp. 3-30). San Diego: Academic Press, p. 3-4 note 2. â€Å"A child who has learned a language has developed an internal representation of a system of rules† (Chomsky, 1965, p. 25). The psychologist’s task, it follows, is to determine what the child’s rules are. â€Å"The linguist constructing a grammar for a language is in effect proposing a hypothesis concerning the internalized system† (Chomsky, 1968, p.23). Up to the 1950s, people simply counted characteristics such as sentence complexity, proportion of grammatical utterances, etc. After Chomsky, the search was on for child grammars, assumed to be universal. Roger Brown’s Research In 1956 Roger Brown heard Chomsky for the first time, speaking at Yale. In 1962 he began a five-year research project on children’s language at Harvard University. The historical significance of Brown’s laboratory at Harvard can hardly be exaggerated. The names of students and colleagues who worked with Brown pop up all the time, to this day, in psycholinguistic research: the list includes Jean Berko Gleason, Ursula Bellugi, David McNeill, Dan Slobin, Courtney Cazden, Richard Cromer, Jill de Villiers, Michael Maratsos, Melissa Bowerman, Eleanor Rosche, Sue Ervin (now Ervin-Tripp), Steven Pinker. Brown set out to write grammars for each of the stages of language development, by looking at the distribution of forms and construction patterns in spontaneous speech. In most cases the data allow for more than one  grammatical description. â€Å"The description to be preferred, of course, is the one that corresponds to the way the speaker’s linguistic knowledge is structured, the one that determines the kinds of novel utterance he can produce or understand, how he constructs their meanings, and what his intuitions are about grammatical well-formedness† (Bowerman, 1988, p. 28) â€Å"Every child processes the speech to which he is exposed so as to induce from it a latent structure. This latent rule structure is so general that a child can spin out its implications all his life long. The discovery of latent structure is the greatest of the processes involved in language acquisition, and the most difficult to understand† (Brown Bellugi, 1964, p. 314) Brown collected samples of spontaneous speech from three children, given the pseudonyms Adam, Eve, and Sarah. The corpus of collected data can be found in the Packer Two-Word Utterances 3 CHILDES archive. Eve was visited from age 18m to 26m, Adam from 27m to 42m, Sarah from 27m to 48m. Dan Slobin described the project: â€Å"We paid close attention to the auxiliary system and to word-order patterns, because these had played a central role in Syntactic Structures. We kept track of sentence types—affirmative, negative, and questions—in which use of auxiliaries and word order would vary. Linguistic growth was assessed in terms of things to be added to childish sentences to make them adult-like: the additions of omitted functors (inflections, prepositions, articles, and the like) and transformational operations. We did not categorize utterances in terms of communicative intent—that is, in terms of semantics or speech acts or extended discourse skills—and so we did not look for growth in terms of additions or enrichment of such abilities. Our central concern was with syntax and morphology, with some later interest in prosody. We worried about such questions as whether child grammar was finite state or transformational, and whether syntactic ‘kernels’ were the first sentence forms to appear in child speech† (Slobin, 1988, p. 11). Mean Length of Utterance This simple measure of syntactic complexity was introduced by Roger Brown. Table 7. Rules for calculating mean length of utterance and upper bound (Brown, 1973, p. 54) 1. Start with the second page of the transcription unless that page involves a recitation of some kind. In this latter case start with the first recitation-free stretch. Count the first100 utterances satisfying the following rules. 2. Only fully transcribed utterances are used; none with blanks. Portions of utterances, entered in parentheses to indicate doubtful transcription, are used. 3. Include all exact utterance repetitions (marked with a plus sign in records). Stuttering is marked as repeated efforts at a single word; count the word once in the most complete form produced. In the few cases where a word is produced for emphasis or the like (no, no, no) count each occurrence. 4. Do not count such fillers as mm or oh, but do count no, yeah, and hi. 5. All compound words (two or more free morphemes), proper names, and ritualized reduplications count as single words. Examples: birthday, rackety-boom, choo-choo, quack-quack, night-night, pocketbook, see saw. Justification is that no evidence that the constituent morphemes function as such for these children. 6. Count as one morpheme all irregular pasts of the verb (got, did, went, saw). Justification is that there is no evidence that the child relates these to present forms. 7.  Count as one morpheme all diminutives (doggie, mommie) because these children at least do not seem to use the suffix productively. Diminutives are the standard forms used by the child. 8. Count as separate morphemes all auxiliaries (is, have, will, can, must, would). Also all catenatives: gonna, wanna, hafta. These latter counted as single morphemes rather than as going to or want to because evidence is that they function so for the children. Count as separate morphemes all inflections, for example, possessive {s}, plural {s}, third person singular {s}, regular past {d}, progressive {ing}. 9. The range count follows the above rules but is always calculated for the total Packer Two-Word Utterances 4 transcription rather than for 100 utterances. The title of Brown’s 1973 book, summarizing of a decade of research (his own and other people’s), was A First Language: The Early Stages. A follow-up was planned, describing the â€Å"later† stages, but never written. What is this book about? â€Å"It is about knowledge; knowledge concerning grammar and the meanings coded by grammar. The book primarily presents evidence that knowledge of the kind described develops in an approximately invariant form in all children, through at different rates. There is also evidence that the primary determinants of the order are the relative semantical and grammatical complexity† (58) Here is an early attempt to write a â€Å"syntactic† grammar of two-word speech, first describing only 89 observed utterances (Table 4), then going â€Å"beyond the obtained sentences to the syntactic classes they suggest (Table 5) (Brown Fraser, 1964, pp. 59, 61): Packer Two-Word Utterances 5 Brown’s Two Main Findings Two main findings are described in A First Language. 1. The â€Å"Semantic Look† of Stage I Speech First, that the organization of early word-combinations cannot be described in purely syntactic terms. Brown and his coworkers quickly had to change direction. Syntactic descriptions didn’t suffice. That’s to say, Stage I constructions couldn’t be satisfactorily explained either as â€Å"telegraphic† speech, or in terms of â€Å"pivot-open† grammar. Telegraphic Speech One of the first ways of characterizing 2-word utterances was to say that they omitted â€Å"function words,† such as articles, auxiliary verbs, inflexions, prepositions, and the copula (is). The words that are spoken tend to be nouns, verbs, and adjectives, and their order tends to resemble the order in what one presumes the adult sentence would be. These characteristics make early utterances sound like telegrams. But inflections are omitted too, and these are free in telegrams. And a few functors such as more, no, you and off are found. More important problems are that this description uses adult categories. And it doesn’t explain the productive character of children’s two-word utterances. Pivot-Open grammars Martin Braine suggested that children have simple rules they use to generate two-word utterances. Each pair of words selects one from a small set of words—called â€Å"pivots†Ã¢â‚¬â€that occur in many utterances, and always in a fixed position (either the first word, or the second). For example, â€Å"Allgone† is a first-position pivot: allgone egg, allgone shoe, but not shoe allgone. A second-position pivot â€Å"off†: shirt off, water off, etc. The choice of the second word is more â€Å"open. † Packer Two-Word Utterances 6 But â€Å"the rules simply do not fit the evidence; pivot words do occur in isolation, pivots occur in combination with one another, sentences longer than two-words are fairly common in I, and there is distributional evidence which indicates that more than two word-classes exist† (Brown, 1973, p. 110). Brown and his colleagues noted that adults â€Å"expand† children’s utterances. These expansions don’t seem effective in teaching the child anything new (Cazden, 1965). But they do provide important clues to the researcher. If one assumes that adult expansions are generally accurate interpretations of the child’s utterance, then pivot-open grammars are inadequate because they underestimate the child’s knowledge. (Both would simply be described as O + O. ) For example, Lois Bloom showed that when one attended to context the utterance mommy sock was used by her child in two different ways. The first could be glossed as â€Å"It’s mommy’s sock,† while the second could be glossed â€Å"Mommy is putting on your sock. † A pivot-open grammar would not be able to distinguish these two. From Non-Semantic (Lean) Grammars to Semantic (Rich) Grammars So Brown and his co-workers started instead to describe two-word utterances in semantic terms. They employed a process that Lois Bloom called â€Å"rich interpretation†: using all the contextual information available to infer what the child meant by an utterance. As Lois Bloom said, â€Å"evaluation of the children’s language began with the basic assumption that it was possible to reach the semantics of children’s sentences by considering nonlinguistic information from context and behavior in relation to linguistic performance. This is not to say that the inherent ‘meaning’ or the child’s actual semantic intent was obtainable for any given utterance. The semantic interpretation inherent in an utterance is part of the intuition of the child and cannot be ‘known’ with authority. The only claim that could be made was the evaluation of an utterance in relation to the context in which it occurred provided more information for analyzing intrinsic structure than would a simple distributional analysis of the recorded corpus† (Bloom, 1970, p. 10). The result was the identification of a small set of basic semantic relations that the children’s utterances seems to be expressing. The eight most common of these are summarized in the following table (cf. Brown, p.193-197): â€Å"Major Meanings at Stage I† Two-Word Utterance mommy come; daddy sit drive car; eat grape mommy sock; baby book go park; sit chair cup table; toy floor my teddy; mommy dress Semantic relation expressed agent + action action + object agent + object action + location entity + location possessor + possession Packer Two-Word Utterances 7 box shiny; crayon big dat money; dis telephone entity + attribute demonstrative + entity It seems that children when they first combine words talk about objects: pointing them out, naming them, indicating their location, what they are  like, who owns them, and who is doing things to them. They also talk about actions performed by people, and the objects and locations of these actions. Brown suggested that these are the concepts the child has just finished differentiating in the sensorimotor stage. This kind of semantic characterization of children’s speech continues in current research. For example, the following table is redrawn from Golinkoff Hirsh-Pasek, (1999, p. 151. ) The terminology differs a little, and Recurrence and Disappearance have been added (or at least were not in Brown’s â€Å"top eight†), but other than this the picture is the same. Two-Word Utterance Mommy sock Probable meaning expressed Possessor-possessed or Agent (acting on) an object Recurrence Disappearance or Nonexistence Action on object Agent doing an action Object at location Object and property Naming Possible gloss â€Å"That’s Mommy’s sock† or â€Å"Mommy, put on my sock† â€Å"I want more juice† â€Å"The outside is allgone† (said after front door is closed) â€Å"(Dad) is throwing the toy chicken† â€Å"The car is going† â€Å"The sweater is on the chair† â€Å"The dog is little† â€Å"That is Susan† or â€Å"Her name is Susan†. More juice! Allgone outside Throw chicken Car go Sweater chair Little dog That Susan What Grammar to Write? How to represent the knowledge that underlies children’s utterances viewed in these semantic terms? What kind of grammar can one write? Brown (1973) reviewed several possibilities are concluded that â€Å"No fully explicit grammar proves to be possible† (p. 244). Bloom wrote essentially syntactic grammars, which however included information necessary to give an appropriate semantic interpretation. Schlesinger (assigned reading) wrote a semantic grammar. Antinucci Paresi (optional reading) wrote a grammar that included some pragmatic information too. The following is a grammar for one of the three children Bloom studied: it â€Å"consists of (1) the phrase structure, (2) lexico feature rules, and (3) transformations (Bloom, 1970, pp. 67-68): Packer Two-Word Utterances 8 Packer Two-Word Utterances 9 Criticism of Interpretive Analysis An interesting criticism of these semantic analyses was made by Howe in 1976. Howe noticed a lack of consistency across semantic categorization of two-word utterances by Bloom, Slobin, Schlesinger and Brown, and suggested that the identification of semantic relations actually tells us more about adult interpretation of children’s speech that is does about what the child has in mind. â€Å"Overall, the existence of contradictions between the categories presented in Table 1, the fact that some of the categories are not always mutually exclusive and the fact that it is hard to demonstrate that some of the so-called ‘semantic’ distinctions are more than syntactic alternatives for expressing the same meaning, make it unlikely that Bloom, Brown, Schlesinger and Slobin have produced an adequate categorization of the meanings common to the speech of children at the beginnings of word combination or indeed of adults. [A]ll four writers tacitly assumed that the two-word utterances of young children always express a meaning adults might express using these words and hence their aim was to specify which of the meanings adults might express occur in the first word combinations† (Howe, 1976, p. 34). Howe asserted that (as she later put it) â€Å"there was no evidence that children at the beginning of word combination recognize a world containing agents, locations, and so on† (Howe, 1981, p. 443). It is interesting to read the next rounds of this debate: Bloom, Capatides, Tackeff (1981), Golinkoff (1981), and Howe’s reply (1981). Bloom is witheringly derisive (and seems to miss the point of Howe’s article), Golinkoff is more constructive. Howe accepts Golinkoff’s suggestion that non-linguistic data will show us how a child understands their situation, and she concludes that so far the research shows â€Å"that children do not discover that language encodes roles [played in actions and states of affairs, as distinct from entities involved in actions and states of affairs], until some time after their first word combinations† (451). But I  think there’s a larger point here that I’ll explore in class. Brown’s conclusions about Stage I Brown drew the following conclusions about Stage I: â€Å"The Stage I child operates as if all major sentence constituents were optional, and this does not seem to be because of some absolute ceiling on sentence complexity. In Stage II and after we shall see that he operates, often for long periods, as if grammatical morphemes were optional. Furthermore, the child’s omissions are by no means limited to the relatively lawful omissions which also occur in adult speech. He often leaves out what is linguistically obligatory. This suggests to me that the child expects always to be understood if he produces any appropriate words at all. And in fact we find that he would usually be right in this expectation as long as he speaks at home, in familiar surroundings, and to family members who know his history and inclinations. Stage I speech may then be said to be well adapted to its communicative purpose, well adapted but narrowly adapted. In new surroundings and with less familiar addresses it would  Packer Two-Word Utterances 10 often fail. This suggests that a major dimension of linguistic development is learning to express always and automatically certain things (agent, action, number, tense, and so on) even though these meanings may be in many particular contexts quite redundant. The child who is going to move out into the world, as children do, must learn to make his speech broadly and flexible adaptive† (Brown, 1973, p. 244-245). 2. The Acquisition of Grammatical Morphemes in Stage II  The second major finding that Brown reported in A First Language was that â€Å"a set of little words and inflections begins to appear: a few prepositions, especially in and on, an occasional article, an occasional copula am, is, or are, the plural and possessive inflections on the noun, the progressive, past, and third person present indicative inflections on the verb. All these, like an intricate sort of ivy, begin to grow up between and upon the major construction blocks, the nouns and the verbs, to which Stage I is largely limited† (Brown, 1973, p.  249). Brown found that the 14 of these grammatical morphemes of English that he selected for detailed study were acquired in a fixed and universal order. These are the grammatical morphemes we discussed in an earlier class: affixes like –s, -ed, {PAST}, and small function words like on, in, the. We’ve already noted that these morphemes are omitted from the first word-combinations. Brown studied the way they are gradually added to a child’s speech. This takes place in what he called Stage II. The child begins to explicitly mark notions such as number, specificity, tense, aspect, mood, using the inflections or unbound morphemes. Of course, Brown was studying only three children, but the finding of invariant order has stood up when larger numbers of children have been studied. For example, de Villiers and de Villiers (1973) replicated his finding with a sample of twenty-one children. Brown offered evidence that the order of their acquisition was determined by their linguistic complexity. (That’s to say, the number of features each of them encoded.) (Though he noted too that children differ greatly in their rate of acquisition of these morphemes. ) Order 1. 2/3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Morpheme present progressive prepositions plural irregular past tense possessive copula uncontractible articles regular past tense third-person present tense regular Example singing; playing in the cup; on the floor books; dolls broke; went Mommy’s chair; Susie’s teddy This is my book The teddy; A table walked; played he climbs; Mommy cooks Packer Two-Word Utterances 11 11. 12. 13. 14.  third-person present tense irregular auxiliary uncontractible copula contractible auxiliary contractible John has three cookies She was going to school; Do you like me? I’m happy; you are special Mommy’s going shopping Brown examined each utterance is see whether it required any of these morphemes to make it fully grammatical by adult standards, attending to both linguistic and nonlinguistic context. E. g. , when the child points to a book and says that book, Brown inferred that there should have been a copula (‘s or is) and an article (a). Then he checked how many of these obligatory positions for each morpheme were actually filled with the appropriate morphemes at each age. Acquisition—defined as the age at which a morpheme is supplied in 90 percent of its obligatory positions—was remarkably constant across Brown’s three subjects. Why did Brown study these morphemes? Presumably because they are at first omitted. But more importantly, he was trying to test the hypothesis that children are taught grammar by adults. And Brown found that frequency of exposure (in adult speech) was not a predictor. For example, adults used articles more frequently than prepositions, but children acquired these in the opposite order. Brown suggested that linguistic complexity does predict acquisition. The morphemes differ in both semantic complexity (the number of semantic features encoded) and syntactic complexity (the number of rules each requires). For example, the copula verb encodes both number and temporality. These two types of complexity are highly correlated, so they cannot be teased apart, but in either case they predict order of acquisition. The other important change that occurs in Stage II is that, as utterances grow in complexity, the child begins to combine two or more of the basic semantic relations from Stage I: Adam hit ball = agent + action + object = agent + action, plus action + object The Other Stages of Language Acquisition Each of the five stages that Brown distinguished is named for the linguistic process that is the major new development occurring in that stage (â€Å"or for an exceptionally elaborate development of a process at that stage† p. 59). Thus we have: Packer Two-Word Utterances 12. Stage I. Semantic Roles Syntactic Relations. MLU: 1. 0 – 2. 0 agent, patient, instrument, locative etc. expressed (in simple sentences) by linear order, syntactic relations, prepositions or postpositions. Stage II. Grammatical Morphemes the Modulation of Meaning. MLU: 2. 0 – 2. 5 Stage III. Modalities of the Simple Sentence. MLU: 2. 5 Next the child forms transformations of simple declarative sentences: yes-no interrogatives, question request, negation, imperative. During the earlier stages children use intonation to mark different sentence modalities. Now they begin to use morphosemantic devices to mark negatives, questions, and imperatives. Stage IV. Embedding of Sentences One simple sentence will now become used as a grammatical constituent or in a semantic role within another sentence. Stage V. Coordination of Simple Sentences Propositional Relations Sentences are linked together with connector words. Individual Differences Brown also noted some individual differences among Adam, Eve, and Sarah. Two of the children combined V with N, and also used N for possession: eat meat, throw ball, mommy sock. But the child third combined V (or objects of possession) with pronouns: eat it, do this one, my teddy. These two strategies were found by other researchers too. Catherine Nelson called them pronominal nominal strategies (they have also been called â€Å"holistic analytic†; â€Å"expressive referential†), and noted that they could be seen in one-word utterances also: some children tend to produce single-word utterances that are nouns, other children tend to use social or personal words such as hi, bye, and please. Subsequent research has explored the connections between these strategies and later development, cognitive style, and input differences (cf. Shore, 1995. Individual differences in language development, Sage). However, these strategies converge over time. By MLU=2. 5, sentence subjects (agents) are typically pronominal, and predicate objects (patients) are typically nominal. Packer Two-Word Utterances 13 Directions After Brown By the mid-1970s grammar-writing was dying out. Incorrect predictions had discouraged researchers, as had the problem of indeterminacy: the fact that more than one grammar could be written. Interest was growing in other considerations: in the role of semantics; in cognitive precursors to syntax, and to language in general; in mother-child interaction; and in the pragmatic uses to which early speech is put. In the view of some people, linguistic structures and operations became neglected. 1. How Does the Child go from Semantics to Syntax? We’ve seen that Brown’s research found that the grammar of children’s early word combinations was better described in semantic than in syntactic terms. If this is so, how does a child make the transition from a semantic grammar to the adult grammar? Researchers continue to argue about this. Steven Pinker (1984, 1987) suggests that children use semantics to enter the syntactic system of their language. In simple â€Å"basic sentences† the correspondence between things and names maps onto the syntactic category of nouns. Words for physical attributes and changes of state map onto verbs. Semantic agents are almost always the grammatical subjects of sentences. This semantic-syntactic correspondence in early utterances provides a key to abstract syntactic categories of grammar. Paul Bloom has argued that children actually are using syntactic categories from the start, and he cites as evidence for this the fact that children will they place adjectives before nouns but not pronouns: big dog but not: * small she Some linguists have offered a syntactic description of Stage I utterances. They argue that at this stage children merely have a lexicon and a limited set of phrase structure rules in deep-structure. They lack functional categories such as INFL (inflectionals) and COMP (complementizers). No transformations exist at this stage: instead, elements of the deep structure are assigned thematic (i. e. semantic) roles to yield the surfacestructure. And they have proposed that the lack of grammatical subjects in Stage I utterances reflects the default setting of a â€Å"null-subject parameter. † (Since in languages like Italian and Spanish a subject is optional. ) Lois Bloom (1990b) has suggested that children simply have a more limited processing capacity at this age. Sentence subjects are often provided by context, and so can be safely omitted. Dan Slobin has proposed that â€Å"children create grammars in which clearly identifiable surface forms map onto basic semantic categories† (1988, p. 15). Packer Two-Word Utterances 14 For example, locative prepositions—in, on, under—are omitted in early child speech. They are used earlier in languages when they are encoded more saliently—as noun suffixes or as postpositions following nouns. At the same time, there is a common order of emergence across languages: simple topological notions of proximity, containment and support (in, on, under, next to), with locative relations embodying notions of perspective (back, front) always later. Slobin infers that â€Å"conceptual development provides the content for linguistic expression, while linguistic discovery procedures are necessary for working out the mapping of content according to conventions of particular languages† (p. 15). Slobin has looked carefully at the English grammatical morphemes—and their equivalents in other languages—to see how they are used before they are completely acquired (by Brown’s 90% criterion). He finds that children generally use the morphemes systematically, though their use is still â€Å"incomplete† by adult standards. For example, a Russian child applied the accusative inflection only to nouns that â€Å"were objects of direct, physical manipulation, such as ‘give,’ ‘carry,’ ‘put,’ and ‘throw,’ omitting the accusative for less manipulative verbs such as ‘read’ and ‘see. ’† Children will â€Å"organize systems of pronouns and case inflections; but, to begin with, children will organize these various forms to express particular, child-oriented speech functions† (p. 18). They are using the resources of the adult language to mark distinctions that are salient to them. Slobin has also proposed some â€Å"universal language-learning principles. † These are an attempt to explain observed cross-language regularities in order of acquisition. â€Å"According to Slobin, the child has certain concepts, based on cognitive growth, that are expressed through the language system. Using certain principles of acquisition, the child scans the language code to discover the means of comprehension and production† (Owens, 2001, p. 214-215). 1. Pay attention to the ends of words 2. Phonological forms of words can be systematically modified 3. Pay attention to the order of words and morphemes 4. Avoid interruption and rearrangement of linguistic units 5. Underlying semantic relations should be marked overtly and clearly 6. Avoid exceptions 7. The use of grammatical markers should make semantic sense Knowledge of Verb syntax Lois Bloom asserts that learning the argument structure of verbs, and the syntactic differences for different thematic relations is the foundation for acquiring a grammar. Verbs play a central role in further multiword utterances. Opinions differ, however, on how knowledge of verb syntax is acquired. Bloom suggests that the first verbs are those that name actions (do, make, push, eat). Nouns and pronouns take thematic roles (agent, object) in relation to these actions. Bloom says that this implies that children’s â€Å"theories† of objects, space, and causation are important here. Packer Two-Word Utterances 15 A few all-purpose verbs—â€Å"pro-verbs†Ã¢â‚¬â€are used for most early sentences. E. g. , do, go. With these, verb argument structures, verb inflections, and Wh-questions are learned. Subsequently, the child adds the syntax for negation, noun- and verb-inflection, and questions. And then moves on to embedded verb phrases (â€Å"drink [Mommy juice]†) 2. From Semantics to Semantics Language involves a great deal of categorization. â€Å"The forms of language are themselves categories, and these forms are linked to a vast network of categorical distinctions in meaning and discourse function† (Bowerman, 1988, p. 28-29).